Intact prostaglandin signaling through EP2 and EP4 receptors in stromal progenitor cells is required for normal development of the renal cortex in mice.

Cyclooxygenase (Cox) inhibitors are known to have severe side effects during renal development. These consist of reduced renal function, underdeveloped subcapsular glomeruli, interstitial fibrosis, and thinner cortical tissue. Global genetic deletion of Cox-2 mimics the phenotype observed after application of Cox inhibitors. This study aimed to investigate which cell types express Cox-2 and prostaglandin E2 receptors and what functions are mediated through this pathway during renal development. Expression of EP2 and EP4 mRNA was detected by RNAscope mainly in descendants of FoxD1+ stromal progenitors; EP1 and EP3, on the other hand, were expressed in tubules. Cox-2 mRNA was detected in medullary interstitial cells and macula densa cells. Functional investigations were performed with a cell-specific approach to delete Cox-2, EP2, and EP4 in FoxD1+ stromal progenitor cells. Our data show that Cox-2 expression in macula densa cells is sufficient to drive renal development. Deletion of EP2 or EP4 in FoxD1+ cells had no functional effect on renal development. Codeletion of EP2 and EP4 in FoxD1+ stromal cells, however, led to severe glomerular defects and a strong decline of glomerular filtration rate (1.316 ± 69.7 µL/min/100 g body wt in controls vs. 644.1 ± 64.58 µL/min/100 g body wt in FoxD1+/Cre EP2-/- EP4ff mice), similar to global deletion of Cox-2. Furthermore, EP2/EP4-deficient mice showed a significant increase in collagen production with a strong downregulation of renal renin expression. This study shows the distinct localization of EP receptors in mice. Functionally, we could identify EP2 and EP4 receptors in stromal FoxD1+ progenitor cells as essential receptor subtypes for normal renal development.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Cyclooxygenase-2 (Cox-2) produces prostaglandins that are essential for normal renal development. It is unclear in which cells Cox-2 and the receptors for prostaglandin E2 (EP receptors) are expressed during late nephrogenesis. This study identified the expression sites for EP subtypes and Cox-2 in neonatal mouse kidneys. Furthermore, it shows that stromal progenitor cells may require intact prostaglandin E2 signaling through EP2 and EP4 receptors for normal renal development.

Low doses of folic acid can reduce hyperhomocysteinemia-induced glomerular injury in spontaneously hypertensive rats.

Hypertension associated with hyperhomocysteinemia (HHcy) is associated with a high risk of vascular diseases. However, the mechanisms of HHcy-associated hypertensive renal damage and the efficacy of folic acid (FA) as a treatment have not been fully elucidated. The aim of the present study was to evaluate whether lowering the plasma homocysteine (Hcy) level using different doses of FA can reduce HHcy-associated glomerular injury in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRs) and to clarify the potential mechanisms of such effects. SHRs were randomized into a control group, HHcy group, HHcy + low-dose FA (LFA) group, and HHcy + high-dose FA (HFA) group. Compared with the control group, the HHcy group had reduced serum superoxide dismutase and GFR levels and elevated serum malondialdehyde and urinary albumin creatinine ratio levels. Increased extracellular matrix of the glomerulus and an increased glomerular sclerosis index, podocyte foot process effacement and fusion, as well as increased podocyte apoptosis, were observed in the HHcy group compared with the control group; these effects were associated with increased expression of NOX2 and NOX4 and decreased nephrin expression in renal tissue from SHRs with HHcy. HHcy-induced changes were counteracted by LFA and HFA treatment. Apart from lower levels of NOX2 in the HHcy + HFA group, there were no significant differences in other indicators between the HHcy + LFA and HHcy + HFA groups. These results suggest that even at a low dose, FA can reduce plasma Hcy and attenuate HHcy-induced glomerular injury by inhibiting oxidative stress and apoptosis.

Dim Light at Night Impairs Daily Variation of Circulating Immune Cells and Renal Immune Homeostasis.

Dim light at night (dLAN) has become a pervasive part of the modern world, and growing evidence shows its association with increased health risks. Though this link is attributed to a disturbed circadian clock, the underlying mechanisms that can explain how circadian disruption from dLAN causes negative health effects remain unclear. Here, we exposed rats to a light-dark cycle (12:12 h) with low-intensity light at night (~2 lx) for 2 and 5 weeks and explored the steady-state pattern of circulating immune cells and renal immune-related markers, which are well controlled by the circadian clock. After 5 weeks, dLAN impaired the daily variation in several types of white blood cells, especially monocytes and T cells. Two-week dLAN caused a reduction in blood monocytes and altered gene expression of macrophage marker Cd68 and monocyte-attracting chemokine Ccl2 in the kidney. Interestingly, dLAN decreased renal 3-nitrotyrosine levels and resulted in up-regulation of the main endogenous antioxidant pathways, indicating a disturbance in the renal redox balance and an activation of compensatory mechanisms. These effects paralleled the altered renal expression of the molecular clock components and increased plasma corticosterone levels. Together, our results show that chronic exposure to dLAN weakened the circadian control of daily variation of circulating immune cells and disturbed renal immune and redox homeostasis. Consequences of this dLAN-disturbed immune balance on the ability of the immune system to cope with other challenges should by clarified in further studies.

Cocoa intake attenuates renal injury in Zucker Diabetic fatty rats by improving glucose homeostasis.

Glucotoxicity (high levels of glucose) is a major factor in the pathogenesis of diabetic kidney disease. Cocoa has anti-diabetic effects by lowering glucose levels. However, whether cocoa exerts beneficial effects on the renal cortex glucose homeostasis and the molecular mechanisms responsible for this possible protective activity remain largely unknown. Thus, the potential anti-diabetic properties of cocoa on insulin signalling, glucose transporters and gluconeogenic enzymes were evaluated in the renal cortex of Zucker Diabetic fatty (ZDF) rats. Male ZDF rats were fed a control or cocoa-rich diet (10%), and Zucker Lean animals received the control diet. ZDF rats supplemented with cocoa (ZDF-Co) showed decreased body weight gain, glucose and insulin levels, improved glucose tolerance, insulin resistance and structural alterations in renal cortex. Moreover, cocoa-rich diet ameliorated insulin resistance by reverting decreased tyrosine-phosphorylated-insulin receptor levels and by preventing the inactivation of glycogen synthase kinase-3/glycogen synthase pathway (GSK-3/GS) in the renal cortex of ZDF-Co rats. Cocoa antihyperglycaemic effect also appeared to be mediated through the diminution of phosphoenolpyruvate-carboxykinase (PEPCK), glucose-6-phosphatase (G-6-Pase), sodium-glucose-co-transporter-2 (SGLT-2), and glucose-transporter-2 (GLUT-2) levels in ZDF-Co rat's renal cortex. These findings demonstrate that cocoa alleviates renal injury by contributing to maintain the glucose homeostasis in type 2 diabetic ZDF rats.

Dietary (-)-epicatechin affects NF-κB activation and NADPH oxidases in the kidney cortex of high-fructose-fed rats.

Inflammation involves the activation of redox-sensitive transcription factors, e.g., nuclear factor κB (NF-κB). Administration of (-)-epicatechin to high-fructose-fed rats prevented NF-κB activation and up-regulation of the NADPH oxidase 4 (NOX4) in the kidney cortex. These results add mechanistic insights into the action of (-)-epicatechin diminishing inflammatory responses.

Nebivolol prevents ethanol-induced reactive oxygen species generation and lipoperoxidation in the rat kidney by regulating NADPH oxidase activation and expression.

We studied whether the ß1-adrenergic antagonist nebivolol would prevent ethanol-induced reactive oxygen species generation and lipoperoxidation in the rat renal cortex. Male Wistar rats were treated with ethanol (20% v/v) for 2 weeks. Nebivolol (10mg/kg/day; p.o. gavage) prevented both the increase in superoxide anion (O2-) generation and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) concentration induced by ethanol in the renal cortex. Ethanol decreased nitrate/nitrite (NOx) concentration in the renal cortex, and nebivolol prevented this response. Nebivolol did not affect the reduction of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) concentration induced by ethanol. Nebivolol prevented the ethanol-induced increase of catalase (CAT) activity. Both SOD activity and the levels of reduced glutathione (GSH) were not affected by treatment with nebivolol or ethanol. Neither ethanol nor nebivolol affected the expression of Nox1, Nox4, eNOS, nNOS, CAT, Nox organizer 1 (Noxo1), c-Src, p47phox or superoxide dismutase (SOD) isoforms in the renal cortex. On the other hand, treatment with ethanol increased Nox2 expression, and nebivolol prevented this response. Finally, nebivolol reduced the expression of protein kinase (PK) Cδ and Rac1. The major finding of our study is that nebivolol prevented ethanol-induced reactive oxygen species generation and lipoperoxidation in the kidney by a mechanism that involves reduction on the expression of Nox2, a catalytic subunit of NADPH oxidase. Additionally, we demonstrated that nebivolol reduces NADPH oxidase-derived reactive oxygen species by decreasing the expression of PKCδ and Rac1, which are important activators of NADPH oxidase.

Possible senescence associated change in the predominant a-Na+/K+ ATP-ase isoform in the renal cortex of the rat.

With aging the kidney exhibits progressive deterioration, with a decrease in renal function. Most of the filtered Na+ is actively reabsorbed in the proximal tubules through different transporters located in apical membrane. This process is possible because basolateral Na+/K+-ATP-ase generates electrochemical conditions necessary for energetically favorable Na+ transport. The a-subunit is the catalytic domain of Na+/K+-ATP-ase. There are three isoforms of the a/subunit present in rat kidney. The present study was undertaken to examine the expression pattern of rat a-Na+/K+-ATP-ase during senescence. We tested the impact of aging on mRNA expression of a-Na+/K+-ATP-ase in cortex and medulla of aged Wistar rats. We observed a significant expression decrease in mRNA levels and a possible change of isoform in the cortex of aged animals. These expression changes observed for a subunit could be contributing to affect the renal function in conditions of water and salt stress.

Possible senescence associated change in the predominant &alpha -Na+/K+ ATP-ase isoform in the renal cortex of the rat

With aging the kidney exhibits progressive deterioration, with a decrease in renal function. Most of the filtered Na+ is actively reabsorbed in the proximal tubules through different transporters located in apical membrane. This process is possible because basolateral Na+/K+-ATP-ase generates electrochemical conditions necessary for energetically favorable Na+ transport. The α-subunit is the catalytic domain of Na+/K+-ATP-ase. There are three isoforms of the α/subunit present in rat kidney. The present study was undertaken to examine the expression pattern of rat α-Na+/K+-ATP-ase during senescence. We tested the impact of aging on mRNA expression of α-Na+/K+-ATP-ase in cortex and medulla of aged Wistar rats. We observed a significant expression decrease in mRNA levels and a possible change of isoform in the cortex of aged animals. These expression changes observed for αsubunit could be contributing to affect the renal function in conditions of water and salt stress.

Con el avance de la edad los riñones exhiben un deterioro funcional progresivo con disminución de la función renal. La mayor parte del sodio (Na+) filtrado es reabsorbido activamente en los túbulos proximales a través de diferentes transportadores ubicados en la membrana apical. Este proceso es posible por la existencia de la Na+/K+-ATP-asa basolateral, que genera las condiciones electroquímicas necesarias para que el transporte de Na+ sea energéticamente favorable. La subunidad αde la Na+/K+-ATP-asa es el dominio catalítico de la enzima. Existen tres isoformas de subunidad α, que están presentes en el riñón de la rata. En este trabajo se examinan los patrones de expresión de la α-Na+/K+-ATP-asa durante la senescencia. Se estudió así si el aumento de la edad incidía en la expresión del ARNm de la α-Na+/K+-ATP-asa en corteza y médula renal de ratas Wistar senescentes. Se observó una disminución en la expresión del ARNm de la subunidad αy un posible cambio de isoforma predominante en la corteza de los animales senescentes. Los cambios observados para la expresión de la subunidad αpodrían contribuir a afectar la función renal en condiciones de estrés hídrico y salino.

Tuberin regulates reactive oxygen species in renal proximal cells, kidney from rodents, and kidney from patients with tuberous sclerosis complex.

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are an important endogenous source of DNA damage and oxidative stress in all cell types. Deficiency in tuberin resulted in increased oxidative DNA damage in renal cells. In this study, the role of tuberin in the regulating of ROS and NADPH oxidases was investigated. Formation of ROS and activity of NADPH oxidases were significantly higher in mouse embryonic fibroblasts and in primary culture of rat renal proximal tubular epithelial tuberin-deficient cells compared to wild-type cells. In addition, expression of NADPH oxidase (Nox)1, Nox2, and Nox4 (Nox isoforms) was higher in mouse embryonic fibroblasts and renal proximal tubular epithelial tuberin-deficient cells compared to wild-type cells. Furthermore, activity levels of NADPH oxidases and protein expression of all Nox isoforms were higher in the renal cortex of rat deficient in tuberin. However, treatment of tuberin-deficient cells with rapamycin showed significant decrease in protein expression of all Nox. Significant increase in protein kinase C ßII expression was detected in tuberin-deficient cells, whereas inhibition of protein kinase C ßII by bisindolylmaleimide I resulted in decreased protein expression of all Nox isoforms. In addition, treatment of mice deficient in tuberin with rapamycin resulted in significant decrease in all Nox protein expression. Moreover, protein and mRNA expression of all Nox were highly expressed in tumor kidney tissue of patients with tuberous sclerosis complex compared to control kidney tissue of normal subjects. These data provide the first evidence that tuberin plays a novel role in regulating ROS generation, NADPH oxidase activity, and Nox expression that may potentially be involved in development of kidney tumor in patients with tuberous sclerosis complex.

Dexamethasone and insulin activate serum and glucocorticoid-inducible kinase 1 (SGK1) via different molecular mechanisms in cortical collecting duct cells.

Serum and glucocorticoid-inducible kinase 1 (SGK1) is a protein kinase that contributes to the hormonal control of renal Na(+) retention by regulating the abundance of epithelial Na(+) channels (ENaC) at the apical surface of the principal cells of the cortical collecting duct (CCD). Although glucocorticoids and insulin stimulate Na(+) transport by activating SGK1, the responses follow different time courses suggesting that these hormones act by different mechanisms. We therefore explored the signaling pathways that allow dexamethasone and insulin to stimulate Na(+) transport in mouse CCD cells (mpkCCDcl4). Dexamethasone evoked a progressive augmentation of electrogenic Na(+) transport that became apparent after ~45 min latency and was associated with increases in SGK1 activity and abundance and with increased expression of SGK1 mRNA Although the catalytic activity of SGK1 is maintained by phosphatidylinositol-OH-3-kinase (PI3K), dexamethasone had no effect upon PI3K activity. Insulin also stimulated Na(+) transport but this response occurred with no discernible latency. Moreover, although insulin also activated SGK1, it had no effect upon SGK1 protein or mRNA abundance. Insulin did, however, evoke a clear increase in cellular PI3K activity. Our data are consistent with earlier work, which shows that glucocorticoids regulate Na(+) retention by inducing sgk1 gene expression, and also establish that this occurs independently of increased PI3K activity. Insulin, on the other hand, stimulates Na(+) transport via a mechanism independent of sgk1 gene expression that involves PI3K activation. Although both hormones act via SGK1, our data show that they activate this kinase by distinct physiological mechanisms.

Foscarnet, an inhibitor of the sodium-phosphate cotransporter NaPi-IIa, inhibits phosphorylation of glycogen synthase kinase-3ß by lithium in the rat kidney cortex.

Lithium, which is used in the treatment of and prophylaxis for bipolar disease, inhibits glycogen synthase kinase-3ß (GSK3ß) by producing its phosphorylated form (p-GSK3ß). GSK3ß plays a role in apoptosis and some kinds of acute kidney injuries, and the formation of p-GSK3ß is considered to contribute to protection against acute kidney injury. We previously reported that the sodium-phosphate cotransporter NaPi-IIa (SLC34A1) mediated the reabsorption of lithium in the rat kidney. In the present study, the phosphorylation status of GSK3ß in the kidney cortex of rats administered lithium chloride and foscarnet, a typical inhibitor of NaPi-IIa, was examined using Western blotting. Under a 2-h infusion of lithium chloride, the plasma concentration of lithium was 1.06 mEq/l, and its renal clearance was calculated as 1.18 ml/min/kg, which was 29.6% of creatinine clearance. The abundance of p-GSK3ß in the kidney cortex was augmented by the administration of lithium. The simultaneous infusion of foscarnet increased the renal clearance of lithium and its ratio to creatinine clearance as well as the urinary excretion of phosphate. Foscarnet also inhibited the lithium-induced phosphorylation of GSK3ß. These results suggest that the reabsorption of lithium by NaPi-IIa triggers the phosphorylation of GSK3ß in the rat kidney cortex.

Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition prevents myocardial infarction-induced increase in renal cortical cGMP and cAMP phosphodiesterase activities.

We investigated whether myocardial infarction (MI) enhances renal phosphodiesterases (PDE) activities, investigating particularly the relative contribution of PDE1-5 isozymes in total PDE activity involved in both cGMP and cAMP pathways, and whether angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition (ACEi) decreases such renal PDE hyperactivities. We also investigated whether ACEi might thereby improve atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) efficiency. We studied renal cortical PDE1-5 isozyme activities in sham (SH)-operated, MI rats and in MI rats treated with perindopril (ACEi) 1 month after coronary artery ligation. Circulating atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), its second intracellular messenger cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) and cGMP/ANP ratio were also determined. Cortical cGMP-PDE2 (80.3 vs. 65.1 pmol/min/mg) and cGMP-PDE1 (50.7 vs. 30.1 pmol/min/mg), and cAMP-PDE2 (161 vs. 104.1 pmol/min/mg) and cAMP-PDE4 (307.5 vs. 197.2 pmol/min/mg) activities were higher in MI than in SH rats. Despite increased ANP plasma level, ANP efficiency tended to be decreased in MI compared to SH rats. Perindopril restored PDE activities and tended to improve ANP efficiency in MI rats. One month after coronary ligation, perindopril treatment of MI rats prevents the increase in renal cortical PDE activities. This may contribute to increase renal ANP efficiency in MI rats.

Short-term treatment with diminazene aceturate ameliorates the reduction in kidney ACE2 activity in rats with subtotal nephrectomy.

Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) 2 is an important modulator of the renin angiotensin system (RAS) through its role to degrade angiotensin (Ang) II. Depletion of kidney ACE2 occurs following kidney injury due to renal mass reduction and may contribute to progressive kidney disease. This study assessed the effect of diminazine aceturate (DIZE), which has been described as an ACE2 activator, on kidney ACE2 mRNA and activity in rats with kidney injury due to subtotal nephrectomy (STNx). Sprague Dawley rats were divided into Control groups or underwent STNx; rats then received vehicle or the DIZE (s.c. 15 mg/kg/day) for 2 weeks. STNx led to hypertension (P<0.01), kidney hypertrophy (P<0.001) and impaired kidney function (P<0.001) compared to Control rats. STNx was associated with increased kidney cortical ACE activity, and reduced ACE2 mRNA in the cortex (P<0.01), with reduced cortical and medullary ACE2 activity (P<0.05), and increased urinary ACE2 excretion (P<0.05) compared to Control rats. Urinary ACE2 activity correlated positively with urinary protein excretion (P<0.001), and negatively with creatinine clearance (P=0.04). In STNx rats, DIZE had no effect on blood pressure or kidney function, but was associated with reduced cortical ACE activity (P<0.01), increased cortical ACE2 mRNA (P<0.05) and increased cortical and medullary ACE2 activity (P<0.05). The precise in vivo mechanism of action of DIZE is not clear, and its effects to increase ACE2 activity may be secondary to an increase in ACE2 mRNA abundance. In ex vivo studies, DIZE did not increase ACE2 activity in either Control or STNx kidney cortical membranes. It is not yet known if chronic administration of DIZE has long-term benefits to slow the progression of kidney disease.

Early co-expression of cyclooxygenase-2 and renin in the rat kidney cortex contributes to the development of N(G)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester induced hypertension.

We investigated the involvement of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and the renin-angiotensin system in N(G)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME)-induced hypertension. Male Wistar rats were treated with L-NAME (75.0 mg·(kg body mass)(-1)·day(-1), in their drinking water) for different durations (1-33 days). COX-2 and renin mRNA were measured using real-time PCR in the renal cortex, and prostanoids were assessed in the renal perfusate, whereas angiotensin II (Ang II) and Ang (1-7) were quantified in plasma. In some rats, nitric oxide synthase inhibition was carried out in conjunction with oral administration of captopril (30.0 mg·kg(-1)·day(-1)) or celecoxib (1.0 mg·kg(-1)·day(-1)) for 2 or 19 days. We found a parallel increase in renocortical COX-2 and renin mRNA starting at day 2 of treatment with L-NAME, and both peaked at 19-25 days. In addition, L-NAME increased renal 6-Keto-PGF(1α) (prostacyclin (PGI2) metabolite) and plasma Ang II from day 2, but reduced plasma Ang (1-7) at day 19. Captopril prevented the increase in blood pressure, which was associated with lower plasma Ang II and increased COX-2-derived 6-Keto-PGF(1α) at day 2 and plasma Ang (1-7) at day 19. Celecoxib partially prevented the increase in blood pressure; this effect was associated with a reduction in plasma Ang II. These findings indicate that renal COX-2 expression increased in parallel with renin expression, renal PGI2 synthesis, and plasma Ang II in L-NAME-induced hypertension.

An angiotensin-(1-7) peptidase in the kidney cortex, proximal tubules, and human HK-2 epithelial cells that is distinct from insulin-degrading enzyme.

Angiotensin 1-7 [ANG-(1-7)] is expressed within the kidney and exhibits renoprotective actions that antagonize the inflammatory, fibrotic, and pro-oxidant effects of ANG II. We previously identified an peptidase that preferentially metabolized ANG-(1-7) to ANG-(1-4) in the brain medulla and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of sheep (Marshall AC, Pirro NT, Rose JC, Diz DI, Chappell MC. J Neurochem 130: 313-323, 2014); thus the present study established the expression of the peptidase in the kidney. Utilizing a sensitive HPLC-based approach, we demonstrate a peptidase activity that hydrolyzed ANG-(1-7) to ANG-(1-4) in the sheep cortex, isolated tubules, and human HK-2 renal epithelial cells. The peptidase was markedly sensitive to the metallopeptidase inhibitor JMV-390; human HK-2 cells expressed subnanomolar sensitivity (IC50 = 0.5 nM) and the highest specific activity (123 ± 5 fmol·min(-1)·mg(-1)) compared with the tubules (96 ± 12 fmol·min(-1)·mg(-1)) and cortex (107 ± 9 fmol·min(-1)·mg(-1)). The peptidase was purified 41-fold from HK-2 cells; the activity was sensitive to JMV-390, the chelator o-phenanthroline, and the mercury-containing compound p-chloromercuribenzoic acid (PCMB), but not to selective inhibitors against neprilysin, neurolysin and thimet oligopeptidase. Both ANG-(1-7) and its endogenous analog [Ala(1)]-ANG-(1-7) (alamandine) were preferentially hydrolyzed by the peptidase compared with ANG II, [Asp(1)]-ANG II, ANG I, and ANG-(1-12). Although the ANG-(1-7) peptidase and insulin-degrading enzyme (IDE) share similar inhibitor characteristics of a metallothiolendopeptidase, we demonstrate marked differences in substrate specificity, which suggest these peptidases are distinct. We conclude that an ANG-(1-7) peptidase is expressed within the renal proximal tubule and may play a potential role in the renal renin-angiotensin system to regulate ANG-(1-7) tone.

Effects of cell-type-specific expression of a pan-caspase inhibitor on renal fibrogenesis.

BACKGROUND: The caspase family of enzymes is grouped into two major sub-families, namely apoptotic and inflammatory caspases, which play central roles in the induction of apoptosis, regulation of inflammation and immunity, and cellular differentiation. METHODS: The role of caspase activation in tubular epithelium and interstitial cells of 3 lines of transgenic mice with obstructed nephropathy was examined: p35 mice bearing the pan-caspase inhibitor protein expressed by the p35 gene separated from the universal CAG promoter by a floxed STOP sequence were crossed with γGT.Cre and FSP1.Cre mice that express Cre recombinase in the cortical tubular epithelium and FSP1(+) interstitial cells, respectively. The γGT.Cre;p35, FSP1.Cre;p35 and p35 control mice were then challenged with unilateral ureter obstruction (UUO). RESULTS: Proinflammatory parameters such as protein levels of active IL-1ß subunit and mRNA levels of TNF-α and NOD-like receptor pyrin domain containing-3, and profibrogenic parameters such as interstitial matrix deposition and mRNA levels of fibronectin EIIIA isoform and α1 chain of procollagen type I in the kidneys were significantly increased at 7 days in the FSP1.Cre;p35- and p35-UUO mice, but not in the γGT.Cre;p35-UUO mice. These changes paralleled the numbers of apoptotic nuclei in tubules, but not in interstitial cells, and the protein levels of active caspase-3 subunit in the kidneys of FSP1.Cre;p35-, p35- and γGT.Cre;p35-UUO mice. CONCLUSION: This study provides evidence of the critical role of caspase activation in the tubular epithelium, but not in FSP1(+) interstitial cells, in apoptosis and inflammasome induction, leading to proinflammatory and profibrogenic processes in fibrous kidneys with UUO.

The function of phosphatidylinositol 5-phosphate 4-kinase γ (PI5P4Kγ) explored using a specific inhibitor that targets the PI5P-binding site.

NIH-12848 (NCGC00012848-02), a putative phosphatidylinositol 5-phosphate 4-kinase γ (PI5P4Kγ) inhibitor, was explored as a tool for investigating this enigmatic, low activity, lipid kinase. PI5P4K assays in vitro showed that NIH-12848 inhibited PI5P4Kγ with an IC50 of approximately 1 µM but did not inhibit the α and ß PI5P4K isoforms at concentrations up to 100 µM. A lack of inhibition of PI5P4Kγ ATPase activity suggested that NIH-12848 does not interact with the enzyme's ATP-binding site and direct exploration of binding using hydrogen-deuterium exchange (HDX)-MS (HDX-MS) revealed the putative PI5P-binding site of PI5P4Kγ to be the likely region of interaction. This was confirmed by a series of mutation experiments which led to the identification of a single PI5P4Kγ amino acid residue that can be mutated to its PI5P4Ks α and ß homologue to render PI5P4Kγ resistant NIH-12848 inhibition. NIH-12848 (10 µM) was applied to cultured mouse principal kidney cortical collecting duct (mpkCCD) cells which, we show, express PI5P4Kγ that increases when the cells grow to confluence and polarize. NIH-12848 inhibited the translocation of Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase to the plasma membrane that occurs when mpkCCD cells grow to confluence and also prevented reversibly their forming of 'domes' on the culture dish. Both these NIH-12848-induced effects were mimicked by specific RNAi knockdown of PI5P4Kγ, but not that of PI5P4Ks α or ß. Overall, the data reveal a probable contribution of PI5P4Kγ to the development and maintenance of epithelial cell functional polarity and show that NIH-12848 is a potentially powerful tool for exploring the cell physiology of PI5P4Ks.

Hyaluronidase 1 and hyaluronidase 2 are required for renal hyaluronan turnover.

Hyaluronidase 1 (HYAL1) and hyaluronidase 2 (HYAL2) are the major hyaluronidases acting synergistically to degrade hyaluronan (HA). In the kidney, HA is distributed heterogeneously. Our goal was to determine the consequences of a lack of either HYAL1 or HYAL2 (using specific knockout mice) on renal function and on renal HA accumulation. Experiments were performed in Hyal1(-/-) and Hyal2(-/-) mice and in their wild-type controls. HA concentration was measured in the plasma and kidney tissue and its distribution through the different kidney zones was examined by immunohistochemistry. Relative mRNA expressions of HYAL1, HYAL2 and the 3 main HA synthases were evaluated by quantitative RT-PCR. Results: Kidney function was not impaired in the knockout mice but they displayed elevated HA concentrations in the plasma and in the kidney. Hyal1(-/-) mice presented an accumulation of HA inside the proximal tubular cells whereas Hyal2(-/-) mice showed HA accumulation in the interstitial space. In the cortex and in the outer medulla, HYAL1 mRNA expression was up-regulated in Hyal2(-/-) mice. From our study we conclude that somatic hyaluronidases are not required for renal function. However, HYAL1 is necessary for the breakdown of intracellular HA in the cortex, whereas HYAL2 is essential for the degradation of extracellular HA in all kidney regions.

Suppression of mitochondrial biogenesis through toll-like receptor 4-dependent mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase/extracellular signal-regulated kinase signaling in endotoxin-induced acute kidney injury.

Although disruption of mitochondrial homeostasis and biogenesis (MB) is a widely accepted pathophysiologic feature of sepsis-induced acute kidney injury (AKI), the molecular mechanisms responsible for this phenomenon are unknown. In this study, we examined the signaling pathways responsible for the suppression of MB in a mouse model of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced AKI. Downregulation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator-1α (PGC-1α), a master regulator of MB, was noted at the mRNA level at 3 hours and protein level at 18 hours in the renal cortex, and was associated with loss of renal function after LPS treatment. LPS-mediated suppression of PGC-1α led to reduced expression of downstream regulators of MB and electron transport chain proteins along with a reduction in renal cortical mitochondrial DNA content. Mechanistically, Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) knockout mice were protected from renal injury and disruption of MB after LPS exposure. Immunoblot analysis revealed activation of tumor progression locus 2/mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (TPL-2/MEK/ERK) signaling in the renal cortex by LPS. Pharmacologic inhibition of MEK/ERK signaling attenuated renal dysfunction and loss of PGC-1α, and was associated with a reduction in proinflammatory cytokine (e.g., tumor necrosis factor-α [TNF-α], interleukin-1ß) expression at 3 hours after LPS exposure. Neutralization of TNF-α also blocked PGC-1α suppression, but not renal dysfunction, after LPS-induced AKI. Finally, systemic administration of recombinant tumor necrosis factor-α alone was sufficient to produce AKI and disrupt mitochondrial homeostasis. These findings indicate an important role for the TLR4/MEK/ERK pathway in both LPS-induced renal dysfunction and suppression of MB. TLR4/MEK/ERK/TNF-α signaling may represent a novel therapeutic target to prevent mitochondrial dysfunction and AKI produced by sepsis.

Correlativity between blood measures related to blood stasis blocking collaterals and gene expression of angiotensin-converting enzyme of renal cortex in diabetic rats and effect of stasis removing and collaterals dredging.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the correlativity between the changes of blood measures related to blood stasis blocking collaterals and gene expression levels of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) and ACE2 of renal cortex in diabetic rats with stasis blocking collaterals syndrome, as well as the effect of stasis removing and collaterals dredging. METHODS: Male Sprague-Dawley rats were divided randomly into normal control group (C group), high-carbohydrate-fat control group (H group) and streptozotocin (STZ)-injecting group. The diabeticrats were induced from rats in the STZ-injecting, group by high-carbohydrate-fat diet combined with STZ intraperitoneal injection, with sustained high-carbohydrate-fat diet fed afterwards, and were further divided into model group (M group) and Chinese medicine of stasis removing and collaterals dredging group (Z group). Rats in the Z group were fed with stasis-removing-and-collaterals-dredging herbal granule suspension intragastrically daily for 16 weeks, while drinking water of corresponding volume was administrated to the rats in other groups. At the end of the 16th week after successful establishment of models, the ultrastructures of glomeruli in different groups were detected by a transmission electron microscopy; and blood measures related to blood stasis blocking collaterals, including lipid profile and blood viscosity measures, were tested, as well as the relative gene expressions of ACE and ACE2. RESULTS: Changes in ultrastructures of glomeruli in the M group were characterized by lack of clarity in structure and occasional thickening of glomerular basement membrane and extensive fusion in foot processes. The correlation analysis showed that there were positive correlations between lipid profile, blood viscosity, and the ACE mRNA expression levels in the M group (P < 0.05), except for cholesterol. And except for triglyceride, the blood measures were in negative correlation with the ACE2 mRNA expression levels in the M group (P < 0.05). Compared with the C and H groups, the lipid profile, plasma viscosity and blood viscosity were significantly higher (P < 0.01). All the above-mentioned measures were significantly improved in the Z group rats (P < 0.05). ACE mRNA expression was significantly higher in the M group than in the C group(P < 0.05). ACE2 mRNA level was significantly lower in the M group than in the C and H groups (P < 0.01); and its level in the Z group was higher than that in the M group (P < 0.01). CONCLUSION: Blood measures related to blood stasis blocking collaterals had positive linear correlations with ACE mRNA expression and negative linear correlations with ACE2 mRNA expression in the M group. Chinese recipe of stasis removing and collaterals dredging could play a renal protecting role for diabetic rats by reducing lipid profile and blood viscosity, down-regulating ACE mRNA expression and up-regulating ACE2 mRNA expression.